Essays

1.        Cimon (or Kimon) has been described as the "Last chance for peace" in the Classical Greek world. Show how this description is both right and wrong. Show details and examples from the readings and lectures on both sides of this interpretation. Given these two sides, is it justifiable, in the face of the evidence, to conclude one or the other? Explain.

2.        Thucydides and other Greeks (cf., Sherman) presented Athenian democracy as a tragic failure, or simply, not democratic. Describe these criticisms in detail. What opposed arguments should be considered? Were there serious problems in the institutions of Athenian democracy? Was it mis-named, i.e., not a democracy at all? Or were the critics wrong, and if so, show how they have gotten it wrong. After exploring the main arguments on both sides in luxurious detail, conclude with your evaluation of the nature of Athenian "democracy."

3.        Cato had a plan for re-vitalizing the Roman Republic. Describe that plan generally  -- what was it made of, what sort of assumptions did Cato make in terms of it, how would it help Rome, etc. Show and explain several examples of Cato actually living out and/or promoting his ideas. Then evaluate Cato's plan: what benefits and/or drawbacks do you see?

4.        Consider and explain Solon's reforms in some depth -- especially with an eye toward the issue of democracy. (You might contrast what Solon did with what Lycourgos did in Sparta to clarify things.) To what extent were Solon's acts, ideas and results democratic? To what extent not? (Be specific, please, in both the examples cited and explanation of each example.) Then contrast this with Pericles acts and ideas -- the so-called 'Periclean Golden Age of Democracy.' Is this last, common, interpretation accurate and/or helpful in understanding Athens? Was Pericles more democratic than Solon?

5.        In our discussions of Cato and Tiberius, we applied the handy categories of Conservative and Liberal, respectively. However, Cato seemed liberal in some policies, thoughts and demeanor, Tiberius seemed conservative at times, and both agreed on the point of reform and ultimate goals.
           Describe the "conservative" and "liberal" slant usually given to each of these reformers, and describe the contra-evidence for each, as suggested above. Given that both agreed on the point and goal of reform, and that the means seems ambiguous(?), what do you make of these two in this context? Any real conservatism in Cato? Any real liberalism in Tiberius? Explain with pertinent details.

6.)      In the life of Tiberius Gracchus, it seems as if he were moving the Roman world and constitution toward democracy -- moving in Giant Steps!  Explain this statement. Is there an opposed view to this? (E.g., did Octavius have it right after all?) Was democratic movement the reason for Tiberius' failure,  or not? Why and/or why not?

7.)       Jesus was a Jew as were all early Christians, yet they started something quite new, startling to some, and revolutionary to others. Do you agree with this statement? All of it? Cite and explain sources as you build your case. For example, how did Early Christian ideas, which were about 'reform', differ from that of Gracchus, Solon, Pericles, Cato etc?

8.)      Edward Gibbon and others have explained the success of Christianity and in this, they represent many scholars. Still, the primary source of Perpetua is..... what, in terms of their reasons? Does the account of Perpetua fit into the categories of interpretation of Gibbon and others ... or not?  Given the primary sources you have read on early Christianity, critique the secondary sources to determine reliability, or not. Detail your response luxuriously.

9.)      Christianity has been described by some historians as "liberal and counter-cultural" and by other historians as "conformist and conservative". Explain the evidence that convinces you one way or the other. For example, do Christian primary sources essentially form a contrast, or a consenus, with Roman and Hebrew primary sources?

Identification Terms

One student has asked: "What sort of response will effectively deal with the short-answer or Identification Terms?"

To do well on each requires  A.) definition; B.) placement in a historical context; C.) most importantly, an explanation of one historical significance. So for example, the following response to the term, 'Pentakosiomedimnoi', Aces it:

A.) Defined as one of four citizen classes resulting from Solon's reforms of 6th-century B.C. Athens. This was the top or elite class from which political leadership was drawn, and to be listed among them, a person produced the equivalent of 500 or more bushels of wheat annually.

B.) The Athens of Solon's day had fallen into serious trouble because of the drastic increase of Athenian debt-slaves and the enormous power of the wealthy 'Areopagos' class of nobles who were buying up the land and people. This created a revolutionary powder-keg with the fuse lit. Solon de-fused the situation with his reforms.

C.) By moving Athens off the political-economic-social basis of aristocracy and into a meritocracy (or plutocracy or timocracy), Solon changed Athenian life forever, setting the Greek world on the path to democracy. His reforms linked an increasing economic power through annual production and trade with political power, e.g., in his elected Council of 400 replacing the Areopagos or voting for political executives, that has had its influences even today.

Observations: Of course we could raise various quibbles with this response, but as a short answer it would get a 10-out-of-10 from me because of its fairly accurate definition, historical context and details, and it provided one very significant result. One is enough.

Quibbles? A more historical significance might center on Solon's elite class as a set-up for the economic revolution of Pisistratos which put in place a more equal distribution of wealth, or, said in another way, Solon's reforms were unfinished and Pisistratos carried Solon's ideas to their logical conclusion of relating economic equality to political equality and democracy by his destruction of the Pentakosiomedimnoi class.

NOTE:

        So, the point is that no one answer is the only best answer.   On the other hand, all best answers respond with some precise ideas, details and explain a larger historical significance in the response.

       All these questions (ID and Essay) are open-ended (i.e., no 'answer book'), so construct your arguments with your own thought, back them up with much evidence, explain how that evidence supports your line of thinking, then conclude clearly even if you do present two or more sides to the inquiry. Your thinking, and your expression of it, matters more than any particular conclusion. So, please, gain depth through the use of the sources.

Hints for Exam Time and for Post-Traumatic-Test Syndrome.